AU Large : Plea carnivores seconfirmth have atalong llheadi fascinated nglevelsarere human presente societies dcorrect and ly:have profound influences on
ecosystems. However, their conservation represents one of the greatest challenges of our
time, particularly where attacks on humans occur. Where human recreational and/or
livelihood activities overlap with large carnivore ranges, conflicts can become particularly
serious. Two different scenarios are responsible for such overlap: In some regions of the
world, increasing human populations lead to extended encroachment into large carnivore
ranges, which are subject to increasing contraction, fragmentation, and degradation. In
other regions, human and large carnivore populations are expanding, thus exacerbating
conflicts, especially in those areas where these species were extirpated and are now returning. We thus face the problem of learning how to live with species that can pose serious
threats to humans. We collected a total of 5,440 large carnivore (Felidae, Canidae, and Urs
dae; 12 species) attacks worldwide between 1950 and 2019. The number of reported
attacks increased over time, especially in lower-income countries. Most attacks (68%)
resulted in human injuries, whereas 32% were fatal. Although attack scenarios varied
greatly within and among species, as well as in different areas of the world, factors triggerin
large carnivore attacks on humans largely depend on the socioeconomic context, with people being at risk mainly during recreational activities in high-income countries and during
livelihood activities in low-income countries. The specific combination of local socioeconomic and ecological factors is thus a risky mix triggering large carnivore attacks on
humans, whose circumstances and frequencies cannot only be ascribed to the animal species. This also implies that effective measures to reduce large carnivore attacks must also
consider the diverse local ecological and social contexts.
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